In conjunction with Argonne National Laboartory the Department of Energy and the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) have produced a White Paper on Produced Water.
The white paper includes 100 references on produced water, many of the entries were published in the past three years. Click here to view the references.
The document contains in six chapters, the first three are introductory. Chapter one provides an overview of the sources of produced water. Chapter two describes the chemical and physical characteristics of produced water and includes specific chemical characteristics of produced water from oil production, conventional natural gas production, and coal bed methane production. Chapter three discusses the volumes of on shore and offshore produced water and presents a an estimate that 14 billion barrels (bbl) of produced water generated on shore in the U.S. during 2002, U.S. wells produce an average of more than 7 bbl of water for each barrel of oil. For crude oil wells nearing the end of their productive lives, water can comprise as much as 98% of the material brought to the surface.
Chapter four describes the federal and state regulatory requirements regarding discharge and injection. In 1988, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) exempted wastes related to oil and gas exploration and production (including produced water) from the hazardous waste portions of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Produced water disposal generally disposed of by discharge or injection. To ensure protection of underground sources of drinking water injection is regulated by the Underground Injection Control (UIC) program. The EPA has delegated UIC program authority to many states, which then regulate injection activities. Some onshore produced water will meet NPDES standards and is approved for surface discharge or beneficial use.
Chapter 5 discusses numerous options available for managing produced water. The first options discussed limit water production by mechanical or chemical shut-off. In addition downhole oil/water or gas/water separators, dual-completion wells, that collect and separate produced water, downhole are also discussed. The second group of options cover disposal and include underground injection to stimulate additional oil production, use for irrigation, livestock or wildlife watering and habitat, and various industrial uses (e.g., dust control, vehicle washing, power plant makeup water, and fire control). The last part of Chapter 5 describes treatment technologies that can be used before injection or discharge.
Chapter 6 offers a summary of the cost of produced water management and includes: site preparation, pumping, electricity, treatment equipment, storage equipment, management of residuals removed or generated during treatment, piping, maintenance, chemicals, in-house personnel and outside consultants, permitting, injection, monitoring and reporting, transportation, down time due to component failure or repair, clean up of spills, and other long-term liabilities. The cost of managing produced water after it is already lifted to the surface and separated can range from less than $0.01 to several dollars per barrel.